The Revitalization Efforts and Successes of Lushootseed

By Emma Ahman

Introduction

One endangered language that is rooted in the Pacific Northwest is the language of Lushootseed. The Lushootseed language is spoken originally by members of various Native American tribes all over the western side of Washington state. According to the Ethnologue database, it is spoken and taught by tribes such as: the Confederated Tribes of the Chehalis Reservation, the Muckleshoot Indian Tribe, the Puyallup Tribe of the Puyallup Reservation, the Sauk-Suiattle Indian Tribe of Washington, the Stillaguamish Tribe of Indians of Washington, the Swinomish Indian Tribal Community, the Tulalip Tribes of Washington, and the Upper Skagit Indian Tribe of Washington. A crucial point to bring up is that Lushootseed is a blanket name for the languages spoken in these tribes, as each tribe has a small variation within the language in a localized dialectical way. Within these tribes, there is currently an ethnic population of about 18,000 people. Lushootseed is classified as a Salish language, and is registered as endangered in its size, as well as on the vitality chart on the Ethnologue website. Along with this, it is registered as a dormant language on the EGIDS (Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale), with a small population according to the “Place in Language Cloud” chart. Another critical aspect to mention is that all Lushootseed speakers are now L2, (Language Two) speakers in that the last native speaker of Lushootseed passed away in 2008. Her name was Vi Hilbert and she will be discussed more in depth later on (Ethnologue, 2021). Lushootseed is a language native to the Pacific Northwest that is endangered due to many historical events contributing to its downfall. However, tribal members in the Lushootseed community are using various revitalization methods to bring the language back to its former state of genuine thriving. When looking at endangered languages, the first thoughts that come to mind are: What are they? How are they endangered? How did this occur? And most importantly, how do we breathe new life into them? In order to fully answer these questions, we must take a look into one specific endangered language, in this case Lushootseed, to try and identify key parts of the whole, such as the language itself, its history, and its current status as being endangered. Let us explore the depths of this language through looking at its culture, the history behind its culture, as well as the revitalization efforts being taken to ensure its survival. Let us also analyze the language itself and understand it better through a deeper knowledge of these key features. As we continue through the paper, we will discuss some people who have made an honorable impact on Lushootseed and its revitalization efforts and relate this to how linguists should handle language revitalization if at all. It is also essential to first look at endangered languages in general in order to answer the questions aforementioned.

Background Knowledge on Endangered Languages and Language Revitalization

As a start, let us discuss what an endangered language is and what they look like. “An endangered language is one that is likely to become extinct in the near future,” (Woodbury, 2021). The author continues, saying that a language is threatened for endangerment when languages that are more widely used in the specific region or nation come in and replace those that were initially spoken before. While this creates a more universal way of communicating between culture groups, it is also harmful in that groups overall suffer from a loss of culture through this. They lose the sense of their own culture that differentiates them from others, and most importantly they lose their language that is special, or individualized to their cultural group. Languages can also become endangered through catastrophic historical events that more or less kill off cultural groups. An example of this is when European colonizers traveled to the Americas and attempted, and ultimately succeeded, at colonizing Native American tribes (University of Washington, 2021). An appalling statistic cited in James Crawford’s,“Endangered Native American Languages: What Is To Be Done, and Why?”, is that there are estimated to be about 175 Indigenous languages in North America, and out of those, 155 languages are considered to be endangered. Could colonization and mass globalization really be that catastrophic to culture groups and their languages? The answer is yes. As a follow-up to this discussion we must ask, what is language revitalization? Oxford Bibliographies defines language revitalization as being, “a fairly recent subfield of linguistics that is concerned with halting and reversingthe extinction of languages,” (Wilhelm, 2017). Communities of endangered languages use different techniques to bring their languages back from near-death. This could be through language learning services such as internet apps or computer programs like Rosetta Stone much like the Chickasaw and Navajo nations are doing. Or, through the use of master-apprentice programs, as in the example of the Chickasaw Nation as well, where a master speaker takes on an apprentice and helps teach them the language so that they can in-turn become a master speaker. We can read about these examples with the Chickasaw Nation through Jenny Davis’ book, Talking Indian, (Davis, 2018). Another example could also be through language immersion programs in schools and colleges, like many other native communities are doing in their revitalization efforts. The next question then would be, why is language revitalization so significant? The website for the United Nations describes the importance as, “essential for ensuring the continuation and transmission of culture, customs and history, but it is also important to address biodiversity loss and climate change. The importance of languages cannot be undervalued,” (UN, 2016). Language revitalization is valued for maintaining diversity in culture and for ensuring that culture is spread as opposed to lost.

Background of Lushootseed Language Endangerment

For Lushootseed speakers specifically, their culture was most disrupted by mass-colonization efforts from the British in the mid-1800s. Non-English speaking tribal members were said to have been forced into signing a treaty between the Europeans and their tribes to allow for the Europeans to invade their native lands, however, many tribal members say and think that these signatures were actually forged instead of beingforced (Puyallup Tribe of Indians, 2020). Because of this, they were forcibly removed from their native lands that stretched around the area we know today as Tacoma into a few miniscule reservations away from where they had lived for eons (Puyallup Tribe of Indians, 2020). These reservations were located in Puyallup, Nisqually, and on Squaxin Island. Their people didn’t fit in these small allocated reservations initially, however, even the allocated reservation lands were being slowly taken from them and diminished over time. Because of this, these tribes then decided to revolt (Puyallup Tribe of Indians, 2020). Tribal members who weren’t murdered or kidnapped took to battle against the colonizers that stretched all the way from the South Sound to Seattle, and all the way east to Native Yakama lands. While all of the tribes may have had different reasons for fighting, one motivation was clear; the Europeans were pushing them out of their homelands (Puyallup Tribe of Indians, 2020). While they ultimately didn’t necessarily win the war as a whole, a lot of the tribes banded together out of solidarity due to the mission behind the fighting. Since then, the Lushootseed speaking groups have helped fight for laws to be enacted in legislation, (Puyallup Tribe of Indians, 2020). These laws include the Boldt Decision in 1974 where the tribe fought for tribal fishing rights, as well as the Land Settlement Act of 1990 where the Puyallup Tribe fought for the reclamation of their native lands through demanding equal retribution for the economic growth happening all around them. They were awarded a settlement fund from the federal government to allow them to have their own land, fisheries, as well as social and economic growth, (Congress.gov, 1989). After being oppressed for hundreds of years, blatantly disrespected through acts of racism by citizens, local authorities, and political figures, they finally had a win in their communities. Nothing can fix the past, but reparations can certainly be made to allow for a better future.

Phonetic and Phonological Aspects of Lushootseed

As a starter into the language of Lushootseed, it’s great to discuss the phonetic and phonological aspects of the language, as well as the differences between the dialects spoken among the various tribes of the Southern Salish Region. We must begin by looking at a dissertation written by Zalmai Zahir, (Zahir, 2018) where he shows the phonetic features of Lushootseed as:

glottal stop, a, b, c, c’, č, č’, d, dz, schwa, g, gw, h, i, k, k’, kw, k’w, l, l’, ł, , m, n, p, p’, q, q’, qw, q’w, s, š, t, t’, u, w, w’, xw, ,y, y’

This shows the variation of Lushootseed to English phonetically. The most notable feature in Lushootseed is its voiceless uvular fricative, shown through /glottal stop/ on its IPA index. It is also notable that of these 43 sounds, 39 are consonants and 4 are vowels. An interesting part of Lushootseed is that all Indigenous groups who speak Lushootseed have different ways of speaking the language and therefore make them distinct from other groups. This means that any Lushootseed speaker could tell where the other was from based on how they spoke. This aside, elders of the tribes insist that each way of speaking is mutually intelligible and is to be respected as Lushootseed. Despite this, there are two main dialects of Lushootseed that are divided between the Northern Dialect and the Southern Dialect and are said to be split roughly at the Snohomish-King County line, which is just north of Seattle. The main difference between these two dialects is how their vowels are pronounced. Northern Dialect speakers tend to pronounce /i/ as [i] and /u/ as [u], whereas the speakers of the Southern Dialect lean more towards pronouncing /i/ as [e] and /u/ as [o]. It’s essential to remember that while these are inclinations, they are not concretely determined. Another thing that differs between the two dialects is stress placement. Northern Lushootseed Dialect leans more towards pronouncing /i/ as [e] and /u/ as [o]. It’s essential to remember that while these are inclinations, they are not concretely determined. Another thing that differs between the two dialects is stress placement. Northern Lushootseed is more apt to stress the second syllable of a word and Southern Lushootseed is more prone to stress the first syllable of a word, (Zahir, 2018). Now that we have gone over some phonetic properties, let us ask ourselves, what does this have to do with the future of language revitalization for Lushootseed speakers?

What is the Future of Lushootseed?

Another major question to ask regarding language revitalization in general is: Do the communities of endangered languages really need linguists in order to successfully and efficiently revitalize their language? A linguist named Margaret Speas seems to think that these communities don’t need linguistic intervention, but what is the truth behind this thought? It’s crucial to first discuss what we do as linguists; a linguist is someone who is interested in how languages are similar to one another in their structure, and how the use of language explains how a human brain works. We go through lots of training to learn how to deeply analyze languages and this is mostly provoked by a preexisting fascination or keen interest in language as a whole. We are very good at taking languages apart and meticulously, or effectively putting them back together again like a puzzle. Margaret Speas makes the analogy, “Just as you can be an excellent driver without knowing how your car’s engine works, you can be an excellent language teacher without knowing how to do linguistic analysis.” Because of our adeptness in analyzing languages, linguists are also susceptible to having our ideas skewed based on a specific interest that may influence our thoughts. Margaret Speas makes another comparison saying, “Asking a linguist to help you develop a language program is a bit like asking a mechanic to teach you how to drive, asking a gastroenterologist to help you write a cookbook, asking a geologist to help you build a stone wall”. Just because a linguist understands the structure of language and is able to deeply analyze them doesn’t mean they’re any good at developing language programs to encourage revitalization, she goes on to say; “Only speakers of a language know best how to speak it,” (Speas, 2008).

The problem with linguists coming into Indigenous communities to ‘help’ them with their language revitalization efforts is that a lot of the time in the past, specifically around times shortly after initial colonization, linguists were not invited into these communities. They would forcibly come in to offer their services and either be very persistent or be immediately turned away because they weren’t welcomed with their assistance efforts. (Mufwene, 2001) Behavior like this strongly mimics the behavior of European colonists in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, who thought they were doing Indigenous people a ‘favor’ in ‘helping’ them by cutting their hair, changing their clothes to match their Anglo style, teaching them the ways of their religion, forcing them in Anglo based schooling with Anglo names, among other things (University of Washington, 2021). These people thought they were helping the Indigenous people by giving them what they thought they needed, but in reality what they should’ve done is asked the Indigenous people what they wanted, or what specifically would help them. The key as a linguist assisting Indigenous groups in language revitalization is to wait for them to ask for assistance, give them exactly what they ask for, and then offer something in return that would benefit their community in some way, but only after you’ve been invited to do so. So many linguists think that they’re helping these groups or that they want to help these groups as though they are more mature, or above what the colonizers were doing, but in all actuality they are simply repeating more of the same.

Language Revitalization Efforts in the Lushootseed Communities

Much like other Indigenous languages, Lushootseed speakers have a lot of plans in place that they are enacting as to how they are going to revitalize their language. The primary way they are allowing for this revitalization to take place is through education programs put in place by the Puyallup tribe as well as the Tulalip tribe. These programs vary from online classes to immersion learning to online resources accessible to the public. The Puyallup tribe has also instituted Lushootseed language use within their classrooms, offices, and their tribal government. For younger, or beginner learners, they have created games and have started using Lushootseed in various activities on tribal lands such as basketball games, beading classes and other events. Along with these language programs, the Puyallup tribe has made an effort to bring language learning to their tribal school system, (Puyallup Tribe of Indians, 2021). The Tulalip tribe also has done a lot to institute language teaching in the classroom. They teach Lushootseed to all walks of life in the local school systems including at the Early Childhood Education Center, various Elementary and Middle Schools, High School, and College. This differs from the Puyallup tribe because the Tulalip tribe has instituted these programs in public school systems and colleges as opposed to only putting them in place in the tribal schools. The Tulalip tribe also has lots of online resources available, especially since the beginning of the pandemic, for children and other learners to access from home. These include vocabulary lists and activities listed on the website weekly, with hyperlinks included on the website that take you directly to language lessons and storytelling on YouTube.Another way the Puyallup tribe specifically has encouraged language revitalization is through the writing and publishing of texts. A great example of this is the Lushootseed dictionary that a man named Thom Hess created with the help of Vi Hilbert, the last native speaker of Lushootseed who passed away in 2008. Thom moved to Seattle to get his Master’s and Doctorate degrees in Linguistics and then stayed to teach at the University of Washington for many years after he graduated and is known for creating the term Lushootseed. He took the Indigenous word dxwlušucid and dropped the dxw prefix and called it Lushootseed. Before this, the language was known to outsiders as Puget Salish, however, he wanted to maintain the authenticity of the word and base it off of the language itself to honor the Indigenous group. By dropping the dxw- prefix, he also made it a bit easier for non-Lushootseed speakers to say. He is also known for working closely with various Indigenous communities in the Puget Sound to learn their languages and to understand their cultures. He wrote his Doctorate dissertation on the language of Lushootseed and is well-known for his work on the Lushootseed dictionary and is accredited with helping preserve the language of Lushootseed. Now, he has a library archive collection named in his honor at the University of Washington that was made available to the public in 2016 after his death in 2009, (UW Libraries, 2021).

Vi Hilbert was a woman born into the Upper Skagit tribe and spoke Lushootseed as her first language. She is known as being a notable elder in the Upper Skagit tribe and did a lot of work in preserving the language of Lushootseed. She was known as “a story-teller, a linguist, a fluent speaker in Lushootseed and co-author of the second Lushootseed dictionary, advisor on the first one, and an educator,” (Tulalip Tribes of Washington, 2021). She met Thom Hess in 1971 and took one of his Lushootseed classes that he taught at the University of Washington in 1972; she passed all the exams with flying colors. The following year Thom offered Vi an opportunity to teach his Lushootseed class. Then helped her create lesson plans, a textbook, and her first book of traditional stories based on those she had learned from her elders. She ended up teaching at the University of Washington for over fifteen years before retiring in 1988 (Tulalip Tribes of Washington, 2021). Vi passed away at home in 2008 at the age of 90. She is far from forgotten, and has a collection of archives in her name at the University of Washington (McLaughlin, 2005) as well as student housing buildings named in her honor at Seattle University (Turner, 2018). She worked to encourage Lushootseed teaching in the schools, specifically on college campuses. And to broaden the availability of Lushootseed learning resources through her textbook and book of stories that she published. She is a great example of someone who worked to encourage revitalization in the Lushootseed culture and is still widely recognized today (Tulalip Tribes of Washington, 2019).

The chapter, “Indigenous Language Revitalization on Puyallup Territory” written by Danica Streud Miller in the book Northwest Voices, talks a lot about the same things discussed in this essay. The main topic Miller discusses are her attempts in assisting the Puyallup Tribe of Indians in their language revitalization efforts. She makes it clear that her help was requested by and not forced upon the Coastal Salish people. Miller goes on to describe the programs that the Puyallup Tribe already has in place, including their extensive community run language immersion classes, and goes into great detail about the Northwest Indian Language Institute (NILI) held each summer at the University of Oregon. She describes how this summer course is held far away from where actual Lushootseed speaking people would be and how it is more harmful than helpful because of the financial burden it imposes on people who would have to travel in order to learn the language native of their people. Instead of this, she suggests hosting a summer-long language course offered in the region of the Puyallup Tribe at the college in which she works. This would allow better accessibility for people who would want to participate within the community, and would have better outcomes of participation from Lushootseed speaking elders of the Puyallup tribe. In this program she emphasized steering away from computers or relying on technology in general to allow accessibility of the program for people who may not have access to these forms of technology. This means that anyone could join the summer program even though it was hosted at a university. While Miller doesn’t discuss the cost of this program, it is fair to assume that it is affordable. Miller mentions how necessary it is to her to not impose a financial burden on the students like the NILI held each summer at the University of Oregon does (Miller, 2019).

Another notable person to mention in Miller, is Zalmai Zahir. Zalmai Zahir was raised in a multicultural household. His mother was of Nakota Sioux ancestry on her father’s side, his father was of Afghan descent, and his step-father was of Indigenous Puyallup descent. Because of his cultural immersion, Zahir was inspired to learn Lushootseed. He learned from many people throughout the Lushootseed community, and learned aspects of different dialects and ways of speaking the language of Lushootseed, (Zahir, 2018).throughout the Lushootseed community, and learned aspects of different dialects and ways of speaking the language of Lushootseed, (Zahir, 2018).

The first person to teach him about Lushootseed was his stepfather, Don, when Zalmai was only eleven years old. Don taught Zalmai through the books published by Thom Hess and Vi Hilbert, who Don had previously learned under, (Zahir, 2018). Later in Zalmai’s life, he took an entire year of Lushootseed in the courses that Vi Hilbert offered at the University of Washington (Zahir, 2018). Thom Hess once told Zalmai that these traditional stories that Vi wrote about were, “the only thing left one could access the culture that had not been affected by Western contact,” (Zahir, 2018). This really stuck with Zalmai and he used this knowledge that he obtained to spread it to others through teaching Lushootseed to various tribal communities around the Puget Sound starting in 1989. “Zalmai has also been a Lushootseed Instructor at the aforementioned Northwest Indian Language Institute, (NILI), held each summer at the University of Oregon for the past 10 years,” (Puyallup Tribe of Indians, 2021). Today Zalmai is the language consultant for the Puyallup Tribe of Indians in their language revitalization department. As of right now, his main mission is in language revitalization through language usage. He spends about one to two hours a day teaching people how to speak Lushootseed in language immersion classes he offers through the tribe. Along with this, he also offers tutoring services and online classes for those who do not live on the tribal lands (Puyallup Tribe of Indians, 2021). Through the website for the language revitalization efforts on the Puyallup tribal lands, there are many resources for those who would like to learn. The tribe offers video lessons, information on the online classes, downloadable resources that include flashcard-like tabs, as well as community resources for supporting the Puyallup Lushootseed-speaking community. Some of these community support efforts include yard signs written in Lushootseed and the Tacoma Transformer Box Designs Project. This project included three Puyallup Tribal artists who are also brothers; Daniel Duenas Jr., Anthony Duenas, and Chris Duenas. These men worked with the City of Tacoma to vinyl wrap transformer boxes on the Puyallup Reservation and around the city. They produced three designs for these transformer boxes; all of which come from the story of dukwib[schwa] l, ‘The Changer/Transformer,’ which is also known as the creation story of the Puyallup people, (Puyallup Tribe of Indians, 2021).

Lushootseed is a language that has been through the harsh effects of colonization and has survived to be able to look back from the other side. Despite these tragic events that ultimately resulted in language endangerment, Lushootseed has been able to start recovering and tribal members have been able to start revitalizing the language. Both the Northern Dialect and Southern Dialect speakers are actively working on language revitalization and believe that the best way to bring the language back is by teaching it, learning it, and speaking it. There are many people, tribal members or not, who have helped this to happen, but the most prominent people have been: Thom Hess, Vi Hilbert, and Zalmai Zahir. These people helped institute language teaching programs for the language of Lushootseed. They created pieces of text such as the Lushootseed Dictionary to help people learn the language better and to allow non-tribal members better access to learning materials.

The role of linguistic intervention by Linguists is something that has both helped, and hindered, the process and progress of revitalization. A noteworthy thing to remember is that languages belong to those who speak them, not to those outsiders who study them. Linguists have no right going in to help Indigenous cultures in their revitalization efforts unless invited or prompted first. If that happens it is our job to respect their culture, their wishes, and to provide them inreturn with something that will benefit their community in a positive way.

Why is this of use to Western students? Lushootseed is an Indigenous language close to home for the students and faculty of Western Washington University. This language originates and resides in what we know today as the I-5 Corridor, the Tulalip area down towards Tacoma. Indigenous cultures in our area, and frankly around the country, have been majorly affected by the roles and rules enacted and enforced by British colonization. The linguistic effects of colonization is something that isn’t talked about nearly enough, and students aren’t taught about it well enough in school, K-12 or even in college. It is important to bring these discussions to people of all identities and education levels to bring awareness about what Indigenous communities are doing for their culture and languages to be brought back to life, as well as how outsiders to these communities can help or support them. As far as what’s next for the Lushootseed community specifically, the community has done a wonderful job at creating language programs. The programs they offer extend all the way from preschool to university level courses, and they expand these leveled classes every year. Since the pandemic has started, they have enacted online Lushootseed education courses with video lessons, virtual flashcards, and online interactive classes. As long as they continue with these accessible methods of language instruction, it’s fair to assume that the community won’t be endangered forever. To conclude, Lushootseed is an Indigenous language native to the Pacific Northwest endangered due to many historical events regarding colonization that ultimately resulted in its downfall. Yet, in recent years, tribal members in the Lushootseed community have started using various revitalization methods like classroom instruction, online lessons, and one-on-one tutoring to try and bring the language back to its original state of vitality.

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